Ethical Decision-Making In Reporting On Marginalized Communities And Underrepresented Voices

By
Juliet Ijeoma Ukwuoma and Isaac Afolabi

Department of Mass communication Oduduwa University Ipetumodu,
Osun State.

Abstract
This paper explores the ethical frameworks and challenges involved in reporting on marginalized communities and underrepresented voices. It examines the role of journalism ethics, media responsibility, and the impact of biases in storytelling. The paper also discusses best practices for journalists and media professionals to ensure fair, accurate, and respectful representation of these communities while maintaining journalistic integrity. Additionally, it delves into the historical context of media misrepresentation, the role of digital journalism in reshaping narratives, theoretical frameworks from communication studies, case studies from Nigeria, and policy recommendations for ethical journalism practices.
1.1 Background of Study
Journalism plays a crucial role in society by informing the public, shaping perceptions, and holding those in power accountable. Ethical journalism ensures that this role is performed responsibly, especially when reporting on marginalized communities and underrepresented voices. In Nigeria, as in many parts of the world, these groups—including women, ethnic minorities, internally displaced persons (IDPs) are often misrepresented, overlooked, or subjected to harmful stereotypes in the media. The ethical considerations surrounding their coverage are vital in ensuring that media reports do not reinforce discrimination, bias, or social inequalities.
The media plays a pivotal role in shaping public perception and discourse. Reporting on marginalized communities requires a balance between journalistic objectivity and ethical responsibility. Journalists must navigate issues such as cultural sensitivity, representation, and the potential for harm while upholding principles of truth and fairness. Historically, marginalized communities have often been misrepresented or silenced in mainstream media, leading to misinformation and reinforcing social inequalities. This study will also examine the ethical decision-making processes involved in reporting on these communities, exploring the challenges faced by journalists, the impact of unethical reporting, and the role of media ethics in fostering fair and accurate representation. This paper will explore how ethical frameworks and communication theories can guide responsible reporting that amplifies underrepresented voices while minimizing harm and bias. The discussion includes an analysis of ethical theories, media accountability, practical challenges in ethical reporting, and recommendations for responsible journalism that respects the agency of marginalized groups.
1.2 Statement of the problem
It highlights the challenges facing journalism in Nigeria, which undermine its role as a watchdog of democracy and a platform for truth. Press freedom is severely restricted due to government censorship, legal constraints, and political interference, making it difficult for journalists to report freely. Media ownership by politicians and business elites leads to biased reporting and a lack of editorial independence. The rise of misinformation, especially through social media, erodes public trust in journalism, while financial instability forces many journalists into unethical practices such as “brown envelope journalism.” Additionally, Nigerian journalists face serious security threats, including harassment, arrests, and violence, particularly when reporting on corruption and human rights violations. The disruption caused by digital transformation has further weakened traditional media, making sustainability a challenge. Addressing these issues requires legal reforms, independent media ownership, stronger fact-checking mechanisms, financial support for investigative journalism, and enhanced journalist protection to ensure a free and responsible press in Nigeria.
1.3 Significance of the study
The significance of this study is multifaceted: it advances ethical journalism, protects marginalized communities, strengthens public trust, contributes to academic knowledge, provides practical guidelines for journalists, influences media policy, promotes press freedom, and encourages fair media narratives. In the Nigerian context, where issues of media bias, political influence, and press freedom challenges persist, this study provides valuable insights for fostering a more ethical, inclusive, and responsible media landscape.
2 Theoretical Framework
2.1 Theoretical Frameworks from Communication Studies and Ethics
To understand the ethical implications of media reporting on marginalized communities, it is essential to examine key communication and ethical theories that highlight the impact of media on public perception and masses. Some communication and ethical theories tat hep in understanding the importance of responsible reporting and the media’s impact on marginalized communities:
a. Social Responsibility Theory (McQuail, 2010): This theory holds that the media has an obligation to serve the public interest by providing accurate, fair, and balanced reporting. It suggests that while the press should remain independent, it must also operate with ethical guidelines to avoid misinformation, sensationalism, or propaganda. Social Responsibility Theory emphasizes self-regulation, where the media should uphold professional ethics to maintain credibility and accountability (McQuail, 2010). This theory posits that the media has a duty to serve public interest by being accurate, fair, and inclusive. The media have a duty to serve the public interest. Nigerian news agencies must actively include underrepresented communities rather than focusing solely on elite politics.
In Nigeria, Social Responsibility Theory is crucial in addressing challenges such as media bias, political interference, and the spread of misinformation. Nigerian media houses often struggle with political ownership, self-censorship, and ethical dilemmas. However, independent organizations like Premium Times and ICIR Nigeria have demonstrated responsible journalism by holding governments accountable while maintaining professional integrity (Ojebuyi & Ekennia, 2022).
b. Agenda-Setting Theory (McCombs & Shaw, 1972): This theory the media does not tell people what to think but rather what to think about. This means that the media shapes public perception by highlighting specific issues, thereby influencing which topics people consider important (McCombs & Shaw, 1972). The theory is based on the premise that the frequency and prominence of media coverage determine the salience of issues in public discourse. If a topic is consistently reported in news outlets, audiences are more likely to regard it as a pressing concern. This concept is particularly significant in politics, governance, and social movements, as media coverage can direct public attention to specific issues suggests that the media shapes what issues the public considers important. In Nigeria, media focus on elite-driven narratives often sidelines the concerns of marginalized communities such as rural farmers and informal workers.
c. Critical Race Theory (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001): This theory examines how systemic racism influences media representation. CRT argues that racism is not just an individual prejudice but a deeply embedded feature of institutions, including the media (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017). In the Nigerian media context, CRT is useful in analyzing how racial and ethnic identities influence media representation, political discourse, and socio-economic narratives. Nigeria, as a multi-ethnic society, experiences media biases in ethnic and regional stereotyping, media ownership and ethnic dominance, and underrepresentation of minority ethnic groups. Nigerian media have been criticized for underrepresenting ethnic minorities, such as the Tiv and Kanuri populations, reinforcing regional imbalances.
d. Cultivation Theory (Gerbner & Gross, 1976): This theory posits that long-term exposure to media shapes perceptions of reality. Nigerian media’s continuous portrayal of Northern Nigeria as conflict-ridden and underdeveloped reinforces national biases and stereotypes.
e. Deontological Ethics (Kant 1785): This theory posits that journalists have a duty to report truthfully regardless of consequences. Ethical reporting on corruption, for instance, should not be compromised due to political pressures.
f. Virtue Ethics (Aristotle): This ethical perspective emphasizes that journalists should cultivate virtues such as honesty, fairness, and integrity in their reporting.
3 Overview of Journalism in Nigeria
3.1 Historical Development of Journalism in Nigeria: From Colonial Days to the Present
Journalism in Nigeria has been a critical instrument of political activism, national development, and public accountability. From the colonial period, when it served as a resistance tool against British rule, to the present, where digital media has transformed information dissemination, the Nigerian press has continuously adapted to socio-political and technological changes. This paper examines the major milestones in Nigerian journalism, from its inception in 1859 to the contemporary digital age. The emergence of journalism in Nigeria was marked by the establishment of Iwe Irohin fun Awon Ara Egba Ati Yoruba in 1859 by Reverend Henry Townsend in Abeokuta. The newspaper was designed to promote literacy and provide social and religious information to the Yoruba people. However, it was later shut down in 1867 due to political tensions with local rulers (Omu, 1978).
By the early 20th century, the press had become an essential tool for political advocacy and resistance against colonial rule. Notable publications that emerged during this period included: the Lagos Weekly Record (1890), the Nigerian Chronicle (1908), West African Pilot (1937), (Uche, 1989). The Nigerian Tribune became a leading voice for regional politics and national independence. During this period, newspapers played a crucial role in mobilizing Nigerians against British colonial policies, thereby significantly contributing to the struggle for independence, which was achieved in 1960 (Dare, 2011).
Following independence, the role of the press evolved from resisting colonial rule to monitoring governance and promoting national unity. However, Nigeria’s post-independence era was marked by political instability, leading to military coups and authoritarian rule, which significantly impacted press freedom. Decree No. 4 of 1984, enacted under General Muhammadu Buhari, criminalized the dissemination of false information against the government, leading to widespread suppression of press freedom (Uche, 1989). The Sani Abacha regime (1993–1998) witnessed harsh repression of the press, with media houses like The Guardian and Tell Magazine frequently targeted for publishing critical reports (Momoh, 2019). Despite these restrictions, the Nigerian press continued to resist authoritarian rule, with investigative journalism exposing corruption and human rights violations.
With the transition to democratic governance in 1999, Nigeria experienced significant improvements in press freedom. The emergence of independent media houses such as Channels TV, ThisDay, Vanguard, and The Nation marked a new era of vibrant journalism. In this era the expansion of broadcast and Online Media:,the proliferation of independent television and radio stations fostered media pluralism. The internet revolutionized journalism, facilitating real-time reporting and citizen journalism (Akinwale, 2020). Digital platforms such as Premium Times, Sahara Reporters, and The Cable have exposed high-profile corruption scandals, including the 2016 Panama Papers leak, which implicated Nigerian politicians (Agbese, 2018).
3.2 Role of journalism in Nigeria
Journalism serves as a pillar of democracy, ensuring transparency and accountability in governance. In Nigeria, the media has been a major force in shaping public opinion, influencing political participation, and exposing corruption. Despite challenges such as government censorship, ownership bias, and financial constraints, Nigerian journalism continues to play an essential role in national development. This paper highlights the multifaceted roles of journalism in Nigeria, emphasizing its contributions to political accountability, social justice, and economic growth.
a. Journalism as a Watchdog of Democracy
One of the primary functions of journalism in Nigeria is to act as a watchdog over governmental institutions. By reporting on political activities, corruption, and policy decisions, the media ensures transparency and accountability (Oso, 2012). Investigative journalism, in particular, has exposed major scandals such as the 2016 Panama Papers leak, which implicated Nigerian politicians in offshore financial dealings (Agbese, 2018).
b. Investigative Journalism and Anti-Corruption Efforts
Investigative journalism in Nigeria has played a pivotal role in uncovering corrupt practices within the government and private sector. Media platforms like Premium Times and Sahara Reporters have consistently published reports on financial mismanagement, electoral fraud, and human rights violations (Akinwale, 2020). For instance, Premium Times exposed the misappropriation of funds in the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC), leading to public outcry and policy reforms.
c. Journalism as an Agent of Social Change
Beyond politics, journalism has been a key driver of social transformation in Nigeria. Media coverage of issues such as gender inequality, human rights abuses, and social injustices has led to policy changes and public discourse (Momoh, 2019). The #EndSARS movement, a nationwide protest against police brutality, gained momentum due to extensive media coverage and social media activism, demonstrating the power of journalism in advocating for societal change (Egbunike, 2021).
d. Economic Development and Business Journalism
Journalism contributes to economic development by providing information on business trends, financial markets, and economic policies. Business journalism in Nigeria has evolved with platforms like BusinessDay and Nairametrics, offering critical insights into economic policies and their implications on businesses and consumers (Omu, 1978). Financial reporting has also enhanced investor confidence and transparency in Nigeria’s business environment.
e. Cultural Preservation and National Identity
The Nigerian media plays a vital role in promoting cultural heritage and national identity. Through programs on radio, television, and newspapers, journalism has helped in the documentation and dissemination of Nigerian history, traditions, and languages (Uche, 1989). Indigenous language newspapers such as Alaroye and Gaskiya Ta Fi Kwabo have contributed to preserving Nigeria’s linguistic diversity.
3.4 Ethical Responsibilities of Journalists When Covering Marginalized and
Underrepresented People

Journalists play a crucial role in shaping public perception and discourse. When covering marginalized and underrepresented communities, they have ethical responsibilities to ensure fair, accurate, and respectful reporting. Ethical journalism should promote inclusivity, dignity, and the amplification of voices that are often ignored. Below are key ethical responsibilities journalists should uphold:
a. Accuracy and Fair Representation Journalists must strive for accuracy, avoiding stereotypes and misrepresentations of marginalized communities. This includes: Fact-checking information to prevent the spread of misinformation ,avoiding generalizations or sensationalism that reinforce negative stereotypes and seeking multiple sources, including voices from the communities being reported on.
b. Informed Consent and Sensitivity
Respecting the privacy and dignity of individuals is crucial, especially when reporting on sensitive issues like poverty, violence, or trauma. Journalists should: Obtain informed consent, ensuring individuals understand how their stories will be used, avoid retraumatizing individuals by asking sensitive questions with care and use pseudonyms or anonymity when revealing identities may put subjects at risk.
c. Avoiding Exploitation and “Poverty Porn”
Marginalized groups are often depicted through a lens of pity rather than empowerment. Ethical journalists should: focus on resilience, agency, and systemic issues rather than merely portraying suffering, avoid using images and narratives that reduce people to objects of sympathy and finally provide context rather than relying on emotional appeals without depth.
d. Amplifying Voices from the Community
Journalists should prioritize voices from within marginalized communities rather than relying on external “experts” to speak for them. This means: including direct quotes and perspectives from people affected by the issue,employing local or community journalists to report on their own issues and recognizing the importance of lived experience in storytelling.
e. Intersectionality and Contextual Reporting
Marginalization is often layered—people face multiple forms of oppression (e.g., race, gender, disability, socio-economic status). Ethical reporting should: recognize and report on the intersecting identities of individuals and provide historical and systemic context instead of treating discrimination as isolated incidents.
f. Diversity in Newsrooms and Ethical Decision-Making
A more diverse newsroom can lead to more responsible and informed reporting on underrepresented groups. Journalists and media organizations should: employ reporters from diverse backgrounds,undergo training on bias, racism, and cultural competency. It should also reflect on their own implicit biases and how they affect reporting.
g. Avoiding Harm and Do No Harm Principle
Journalists must prioritize the safety and well-being of those they report on, particularly in conflict zones or sensitive situations. Ethical practices include: protecting vulnerable individuals from backlash by ensuring anonymity when necessary. It should also report responsibly on issues like suicide, crime, and violence to prevent further harm.
3.4 Underrepresented and Minority Communities
In Nigeria, underrepresented and minority communities include ethnic, religious, and socially marginalized groups that often face discrimination, limited access to resources, and political underrepresentation. These groups include:
a. Ethnic Minorities
Ijaw, Ogoni, and other Niger Delta Communities: Despite being in an oil-rich region, they suffer from environmental degradation, economic marginalization, and government neglect. The Ogoni people, for instance, have long protested against oil exploitation by multinational corporations like Shell. Chevron etc.
Tiv, Idoma, and Other Middle Belt Groups: These groups often face land disputes and political exclusion due to their location between the Hausa-Fulani-dominated North and the Yoruba/Igbo-dominated South.
Nupe, Gwari, and Ebira: These minority ethnic groups have less political influence and economic opportunities compared to larger ethnic groups.
b. Religious Minorities
Christians in Northern Nigeria: They frequently experience discrimination, restricted access to religious freedom, and violent attacks by extremist groups such as Boko Haram.
Muslims in Southern Nigeria: Though a minority, they sometimes face prejudice in predominantly Christian areas, especially in states with strong Christian political influence.
c. Indigenous and Nomadic Groups
Fulani Herders: Though often politically dominant in some areas, pastoralist Fulani communities face economic challenges and are caught in conflicts with sedentary farming communities.
The Mbororo (Wodaabe) People: A subgroup of the Fulani, they have limited political voice and often struggle for recognition of their cultural identity.
d. Persons with Disabilities (PWDs)
Face significant barriers in employment, education, and public infrastructure access, despite the enactment of the Discrimination Against Persons with Disabilities Act (2018),

f. Women and Gender Minorities
Women in Nigeria, especially in rural areas, face gender-based discrimination, limited political representation, and economic disadvantages. Widows and child brides in certain communities suffer from harmful traditional practices, including forced marriages and denial of inheritance rights.
g. Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs)
Victims of Boko Haram insurgency, banditry, and communal clashes, particularly in states like Borno, Kaduna, and Benue, face inadequate shelter, food insecurity, and poor healthcare.
These communities often struggle for representation in governance, economic opportunities, and legal protection, making ethical media reporting essential to ensuring their voices are heard.
3.5 Are they marginalized people recognised or underpresented
In Nigeria, underrepresented and minority communities encompass various ethnic, religious, and socially marginalized groups that often face challenges in achieving full representation and participation in the nation’s political, economic, and social spheres. Despite constitutional provisions aimed at promoting inclusivity, these communities frequently encounter systemic barriers that hinder their equitable representation.
Ethnic Minorities: Nigeria’s three dominant ethnic groups—the Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, and Igbo—constitute approximately 60% of the population, leaving numerous smaller ethnic communities collectively representing about 40% as minorities. These minority groups often struggle with political marginalization and limited influence in national decision-making processes. For instance, the Ijaw and Ogoni communities in the Niger Delta region have historically faced economic exploitation and environmental degradation due to oil extraction activities, with insufficient governmental intervention to address their grievances.
Religious Minorities: Religious minorities in Nigeria also face significant challenges. Christians residing in predominantly Muslim northern regions often experience discrimination and limited access to political representation. Similarly, Muslims in predominantly Christian southern areas may encounter social and political exclusion. The politicization of religion has further deepened divisions, influencing electoral outcomes and governance, and often leading to the underrepresentation of these minority religious groups.
Socially Marginalized Groups: Socially marginalized communities, including persons with disabilities (PWDs) and the LGBTQ+ population, face systemic barriers to representation. Despite the enactment of the Discrimination Against Persons with Disabilities Act in 2018, implementation has been weak, resulting in continued challenges for PWDs in accessing education, employment, and political participation.
d. Governmental Measures and Challenges: The Nigerian government has implemented measures such as the Federal Character Principle, aiming to ensure equitable representation of various groups in public service appointments. However, the effectiveness of these measures is often undermined by political interference and inadequate enforcement. Furthermore, the creation of new states and local government areas intended to address minority concerns has sometimes led to increased inter-ethnic tensions and competition for resources.
While Nigeria has established frameworks to promote the inclusion of underrepresented and minority communities, significant gaps remain in their effective implementation. These groups continue to face challenges in achieving full representation and participation across various sectors. Addressing these issues requires genuine decentralization, strict adherence to constitutional provisions, and proactive policies that empower minority communities to participate fully in Nigeria’s socio-political landscape.
3.6 Challenges facing journalism
Journalism in Nigeria has faced several challenges which includes:
a. Government Censorship and Press Restrictions
The Nigerian government has historically imposed restrictions on press freedom, particularly during military rule. Although democracy has improved press freedoms, laws such as the Cybercrime Act (2015) have been used to suppress journalists and media organizations critical of the government (Dare, 2011). Journalists reporting on sensitive topics, such as corruption and human rights abuses, often face arrests, intimidation, and violence. The 2020 arrest of journalist Omoyele Sowore for his critical stance against the government exemplifies the restrictions placed on press freedom (CPJ, 2020).
b. Ownership Bias and Political Interference
Many Nigerian media houses are owned by politicians, business elites, or government allies, affecting editorial independence (Oso, 2012). This ownership structure often leads to biased reporting, where news outlets avoid publishing stories that could negatively impact their owners or financial backers. This undermines objective journalism and weakens public trust in the media (Pate, 2018).
c. Economic Challenges and Poor Remuneration
Many Nigerian journalists face financial difficulties due to low salaries, lack of job security, and inadequate funding for media organizations. Financial struggles force some journalists to engage in brown envelope journalism—accepting bribes in exchange for favorable news coverage (Akinwale, 2020). The poor economic conditions of journalists hinder investigative reporting and reduce journalistic integrity (Ojebode, 2021).
d. Misinformation, Fake News, and Social Media Challenges
The rise of digital and social media has increased the spread of misinformation and fake news in Nigeria. Many individuals and organizations use platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and WhatsApp to spread unverified or misleading information, often leading to public panic or political unrest (Momoh, 2019). The lack of strict fact-checking mechanisms exacerbates this problem, making it difficult for the public to distinguish credible news from false information (Adeleke, 2021).
e. Harassment and Safety Risks for Journalists
Journalists in Nigeria often face threats, harassment, and physical attacks, particularly when reporting on corruption or human rights violations. Organizations such as the Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) have documented several cases where Nigerian journalists have been detained, assaulted, or even killed in the line of duty (Egbunike, 2021). The 2019 killing of investigative journalist Precious Owolabi during a police crackdown on protests highlights the dangers faced by media professionals (Amnesty International, 2019).
f. Infrastructural and Technological Limitations
Poor infrastructure, including irregular power supply, limited internet access, and inadequate technological resources, poses a significant challenge to journalism in Nigeria. Many media houses struggle with outdated equipment, affecting their ability to produce high-quality content (Omu, 1978). Additionally, the high cost of internet data limits the reach of online journalism, particularly in rural areas. (Uche 1989).
3.6.1 Some Case Studies from Nigeria
a. The EndSARS Protest and Police Brutality Coverage (2020)
The EndSARS movement highlighted how digital media amplified underrepresented voices when traditional outlets failed to provide balanced coverage. Ethical concerns arose regarding misinformation and government censorship (Egbunike, 2021).
b. Coverage of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) in Northern Nigeria
Reports on IDPs due to Boko Haram insurgency often lack depth and context, failing to capture their lived realities. Ethical reporting should emphasize their voices rather than relying solely on government narratives (Olukotun, 2018).
c. Ethnic and Religious Conflict Coverage
Nigerian media have been accused of inflammatory reporting on inter-ethnic and religious clashes, such as the Fulani-herder conflicts in Plateau State. Ethical journalism requires neutrality and sensitivity to prevent escalation (Aliyu & Ibrahim, 2019).
d. Representation of Women in Politics
Female politicians are often subjected to gender biases in Nigerian media. Coverage tends to focus on personal lives rather than political contributions, highlighting the need for gender-sensitive reporting (Arogundade, 2021).
e. Misinformation During the COVID-19 Pandemic
During the pandemic, Nigerian media struggled with the spread of misinformation, particularly about vaccines and treatment methods. Ethical journalism required fact-checking and ensuring accurate public health messaging (Oyero et al., 2021).
f. Media Coverage of the Lekki Toll Gate Shooting (2020)
Reports on the Lekki Toll Gate incident during the EndSARS protests revealed discrepancies between state-controlled and independent media. Government-run media initially downplayed the event, highlighting the importance of journalistic integrity and accountability (BBC Africa, 2020).
g. The Chibok Girls Kidnapping and Media Sensationalism (2014-Present)
The abduction of over 200 schoolgirls by Boko Haram in 2014 led to global attention, but Nigerian media coverage often sensationalized the story without sustained investigative efforts. Ethical journalism should ensure continued focus on victims and their families rather than just political angles (Akinwale, 2015).
h. The Almajiri System and Neglected Child Welfare Stories
Reports on the Almajiri child system in Northern Nigeria often focus on stereotypes rather than structural issues. Ethical journalism should engage with affected communities to highlight solutions rather than reinforce biases (Yusha’u, 2012)
i. Environmental Degradation in the Niger Delta
Media coverage of oil spills and environmental destruction in the Niger Delta often prioritizes corporate or government narratives over community perspectives. Ethical journalism must amplify the voices of affected locals and advocate for accountability (Uche, 2018).
4 Recommendations for Ethical Reporting
To ensure responsible and ethical journalism that accurately represents marginalized communities, the following recommendations are proposed:
Adopt Inclusive Editorial Policies – Media organizations should establish guidelines that require diverse representation in reporting and editorial decision-making.
Implement Ethical Training for Journalists – Continuous training on cultural sensitivity, ethical reporting, and unconscious bias should be mandatory for journalists and media professionals.
Engage Directly with Marginalized Communities – Reporters should build trust and relationships within communities, ensuring they are active participants in the storytelling process.
Diversify Media Workforces – Newsrooms should actively recruit journalists from underrepresented backgrounds to foster more inclusive and nuanced reporting.
Use Trauma-Informed Reporting Practices – Journalists should be trained to recognize the psychological impact of reporting on vulnerable communities and apply sensitivity when covering traumatic events.
Challenge Harmful Narratives and Stereotypes – Media organizations should critically evaluate how they frame stories and ensure they do not reinforce stereotypes.
Support Independent and Community Journalism – Funding and resources should be directed toward media platforms run by and for marginalized communities to amplify their voices.
Promote Ethical Storytelling in Digital Journalism – With the rise of digital platforms, journalists should prioritize accuracy, avoid clickbait, and ensure ethical engagement with online communities.
Establish Accountability Mechanisms – Independent review bodies should be set up to monitor media organizations’ compliance with ethical standards in reporting.
Encourage Public Media Literacy – Audiences should be educated on media biases, framing effects, and how to critically engage with news content.

5 Conclusion
Ethical decision-making in reporting on marginalized communities is crucial for fostering social justice, representation, and accountability. Journalists must be aware of their power and responsibility in shaping public discourse. By adhering to ethical frameworks, engaging communities respectfully, and avoiding harmful stereotypes, the media can contribute to a more just and equitable society. The inclusion of communication theories provides deeper insight into the structural and systemic issues that impact media representation, emphasizing the need for ongoing reforms and responsible reporting practices. Nigerian case studies further demonstrate how ethical challenges manifest in real-world journalism, underscoring the importance of continuous professional development and regulatory improvements in media ethics.

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